Book Description

ABSTRACT: Math problem solving has been regarded as one of the major weaknesses in U.S. students' math performance for many years (Orabuchi, 1992). One of the main reasons that students do not perform well in math problem solving may be due to math anxiety. There has been increasing interest in math education areas on how to reduce math anxiety to enhance students' math performance. However, there were few empirical studies which examined the effects of various interventions towards decreasing math anxiety. Given the lack of empirical studies on how to reduce students' math anxiety and to increase math learning, this study examined the effects of emotional support and cognitive motivational messages on math anxiety, self-efficacy, and math problem solving. This study built upon the work done by Shen (2009) by modifying elements of his design and stimulus materials and by introducing a new independent variable: incremental ability beliefs. Thus, two independent variables - one for decreasing affective math anxiety (emotional support) and another for alleviating cognitive math anxiety (cognitive motivational messages) were used in this study. The pedagogical agents were used as a delivering method of a computer based module in this study, but not an independent variable of this study. Emotional support messages were designed to alleviate students' affective dimension of math anxiety. Emotional support messages were developed based on Shen's (2009) study, which was based on the multidimensional coping inventory (COPE) (Carver et al., 1989). In this study, emotional support messages included four scales related to emotion-focus coping, which are- positive reinterpretation and growth (RG), focus on and venting of emotions (VE), use of instrumental social support (IS), and use of emotional support (ES) from COPE (Carver et al., 1989). Emotional support messages were delivered by an instructor agent and peer agent to the emotional support group. Cognitive motivational messages were designed to reduce students' cognitive dimension of math anxiety which related to worry of performing well in mathematics. In this study, cognitive motivational messages specifically contained ability belief change messages to alleviate the cognitive dimension of math anxiety. Implicit theory separated students' ability beliefs into two categories: entity belief and incremental belief (Dweck, 1999). Incremental ability belief messages were provided to the cognitive motivational messages treatment group primarily by a scientist agent in a computer-based module with video clips and short messages which emphasize the students' abilities were not fixed and could be improved through effort. The initial idea for cognitive motivational messages came from an article "You can grow your intelligence: New research shows the brain can be developed like a muscle" which was used in previous experimental study (Blackwell et al., 2007). Thus, cognitive motivational messages were developed by the researcher based on Blackwell et al (2007)'s study and then were reviewed by an expert in motivational design. Eighty-eight GED students enrolled in GED math classes at a community college in Florida were distributed to four groups (emotional support only, cognitive motivational messages only, emotional support and cognitive motivational messages, and a control group) and asked to individually study a computer-based module about vocabulary, concepts, and formulas related to the Pythagorean Theorem for 45 to 60 minutes. Two different math anxiety questionnaires [Mathematics Anxiety Questionnaire (MAQ) (Wigfield & Meece, 1988) and Mathematics Anxiety Scale (MAS) (Fennema & Sherman, 1976)] were used in a pre-test and post-test. Self-efficacy questionnaires were modified to be aligned with the context of this study focusing on math problem solving using Kim's (2004) questionnaire. The math problem solving items were developed based on Shen (2009)'s items. MANOVA results indicate emotional support significantly affect the combined DV of math anxiety, self-efficacy, and math problem solving. A follow-up ANOVA revealed that emotional support had a significant effect on math anxiety and math problem solving. The emotional support group reported significantly lower math anxiety than the no emotional support group. Also, the emotional support group scored significantly higher in the post-test of math problem solving than the no emotional support group. MANOVA revealed a primary effect of cognitive motivational messages on the combined DV of math anxiety, self-efficacy, and math problem solving. A follow-up ANOVA revealed that cognitive motivational messages had a significant effect on self-efficacy. The cognitive motivational messages group reported significantly higher self-efficacy than the no cognitive motivational messages group. MANOVA revealed an interaction effect of emotional support and cognitive motivational messages on the combined DV of math anxiety, self-efficacy, and math problem solving. A follow-up ANOVA revealed that there was an interaction effect of emotional support and cognitive motivational messages on math anxiety. This study shows possibilities of adapting coping strategies as a form of emotional support and use incremental ability beliefs as the content of cognitive motivational messages. Also, the study found that pedagogical agents could be effective as a form of emotional and motivational support for students in a computer-based module. Further research studies which examine the effects of emotional support and cognitive motivational messages with different populations, subject areas, delivery medium, and long term treatment would be needed to expand the findings of this study. It is expected that further research based on this study would improve the nature of treatment and provide more solid evidence to researcher and teachers.