Collective Action among African Smallholders


Book Description

Wanyama, Fredrick; Poulton, Colin; Markelova, Helen; Dutilly-Diane, Celine; Hendrikse, George; Bijman, Jos; Francesconi, Gian Nicola; Bernard, Tanguy; Cook, Michael; Badiane, Ousmane and Wouterse, Fleur Stephanie. 2014. Collective action among african smallholders: Trends and lessons for future development strategies. WCAO Thematic Research Note 5. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)




Collective Action and Property Rights for Poverty Reduction


Book Description

To improve their well-being, the poor in developing countries have used both collective action through formal and informal groups and property rights to natural resources. Collective Action and Property Rights for Poverty Reduction: Insights from Africa and Asia examines how these two types of institutions, separately and together, influence quality of life and how they can be strengthened to improve the livelihoods of the rural poor. The product of a global research study by the Systemwide Program on Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi) of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, this book draws on case studies from East Africa and South and Southeast Asia to investigate how collective action and property rights have contributed to poverty reduction. The book extends the analysis of these institutions beyond their frequently studied role in natural resource management by also examining how they can reduce vulnerability to different types of shocks. Essays in the volume identify opportunities and risks present in the institutions of collective action and property rights. For example, property rights to natural resources can offer a variety of advantages, providing individuals and groups not only with benefits and incomes but also with assets that can counter the negative effects of shocks such as drought, and can make collective action easier. The authors also demonstrate that collective action has the potential to reduce poverty if it includes more vulnerable groups such as women, ethnic minorities, and the very poor. Preventing exclusion of these often-marginalized groups and guaranteeing genuinely inclusive collective action might require special rules and policies. Another danger to the poor is the capture of property rights by elites, which can be the result of privatization and decentralization policies; case studies and analysis identify actions to prevent such elite capture.




The Plight of African Small-Scale Farmers


Book Description

My story fulcrums on the poverty and marginalization of the African small-scale farmer. It is set in the year 2016, at the time when children in developed countries were playing with i-pads and logged on the internet! Projecting into the future, the gap between the children of Africa and those of the developed world is increasing. The children of Africa are being left behind. Millions continue to be deprived. Many of these children are in rural areas. Their parents are the African small-scale farmers. It is estimated that more than 70 % of Africa's poor are found in rural areas. They depend mostly on low technology agricultural activities to sustain their livelihoods. Given this observation, and at the rate things are going, Africans are nowhere near realizing many of their critical socio-economic development indicators or goals. Despite impressive figures in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rates in recent years, the reality on the ground is that African poverty is getting out of hand. The majority of the continents' young are likely to be even poorer that their parents. This is the grim reality of the rural and urban poor alike. However, it is the rural poor that hold the key to turning around the disturbing poverty trends. This is because rural folks have the resources to do so. The main hurdle is how to help them to help themselves in turning their resource into the power they need to transform lives in the African continent. Their greatest resource is in land and farming. It is in producing agricultural commodities, food. That Africa is a continent with the best future in the new world order is without any doubt. Africa has the greatest potential to transform not only in mining, energy, industrial development and information communication technology but in agriculture and agro-based industries as well. It is one of the greatest mysteries why a continent so rich in fertile land and water resources should be a net food importer, wallowing in poverty and despair. The African rural poor are isolated and lack information! This book is inspired by these disturbing observations. It is aimed at bringing a new perspective to the acclaimed and much talked about African Agricultural Transformation Agenda. It hinges on organization and mobilization as a vehicle to transform rural livelihoods in the continent. 'For this to happen, Africa needs true champions that will take a leading role in the African Agricultural Transformation Agenda.'










Access to markets for smallholder farmers in Alto Molócue and Molumbo, Mozambique: Mid-term impact evaluation of INOVAGRO II


Book Description

The Innovation for Agribusiness (InovAgro) project, which launched with its first three year phase in 2010, uses a market system development (MSD) approach towards the goal of increasing incomes of men and women small-scale farmers in northern Mozambique. InovAgro interventions promote improved agricultural productivity, participation in selected high-potential value chains and the development of inclusive and sustainable market systems, such that impacts are expected to last long beyond the termination of the project. This paper presents results from a midline quantitative impact evaluation of the second phase of the InovAgro project interventions (2014-2017). In it, we use a carefully designed and executed quasi-experimental study design to credibly attribute changes in market engagement and welfare of participating farmers to exposure to the InovAgro II project, identifying and testing in what respects the intervention was most successful, and what regard it had less impact. Although InovAgro II projects operate in 11 districts of Zambézia and Cabo Delgado provinces, this impact evaluation focuses on two districts in Zambézia province (Alto Molócue and Molumbo), and in terms of value chains, focuses on the soybean and pigeon pea high-potential value chains, while the InovAgro II project interventions focus on these in addition to maize, sesame and groundnut. A baseline survey was undertaken in 2015 covering the 2014/2015 agricultural season and a midline follow-up survey was conducted in 2017, covering the 2016/2017 agricultural season and reaching 1,749 households of the original 1,886 households interviewed in the baseline survey. Using difference-in-difference estimation and propensity score matching, we find that exposure to the InovAgro II project is associated with an increase in the proportion of households selling soybean and pigeon pea by approximately 5% and 16%, respectively (significant at the .01 level). Exposure to the InovAgro II project also results in significantly higher shares of smallholder farmers using improved seed for soybean and pigeon pea (an increase of 6% for soybean and 2% for pigeon pea). We find that the InovAgro II project is also associated with significant increases in access to agricultural output market information from formal sources (5%) and hired labor for farming activities (8%). Despite the significant impacts on short term outcome variables, exposure to the InovAgro II project had limited impact on long term outcome variables, such as on rural-urban migration as well as engagement in the non-farm sector (two proxies for assessing potential welfare implications of the project) however this finding is not surprising given the impact evaluation covers only two years-a short period of time to bring about the long-term impacts expected to eventually emanate from an MSD project.




Determinants and Impact of Smallholder Collection Action in Kenya


Book Description

Summary Smallholders face numerous constraints that keep them from taking advantage of market opportunities. Because they often live in poverty and remoteness, on less than a hectare of land with poor road and market infrastructure, they face high costs of market exchange. In order for smallholders to compete with large-scale farms and benefit from the observed and ongoing transformation of the agri-food sector, institutional solutions are necessary that address the small scale problem. One potential option is through farmer collective action. However, the existing literature has not yet sufficiently identified the explicit mechanisms and dynamics by which collective action generates benefits for men and women. In three related articles, this research investigates how farmer groups facilitate access to input and output markets by reducing transaction costs, thereby promoting intensification and commercialization of small farms. It addresses the existing research gap by analyzing determinants, participation dynamics and impacts of farmer groups, using the case of small-scale banana producers in Kenya. For the analysis cross-sectional data from 444 farm households was collected in the central highlands region of Kenya, where bananas provide an important source of food and income. Recently established farmer groups initiated by two local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), TechnoServe and Africa Harvest, introduced institutional change in the national banana market chain. Within such groups, farmers can more easily access clean tissue culture (TC) banana planting material, get agronomic and market information, negotiate better prices and gain access to urban, high-value markets through collective selling. However, the marketing performance of these groups is unclear, and commitment varies greatly between members. Gender issues are partly left unaddressed by NGOs and group leadership. These issues pose serious threats to the groups’ viability in the long run. The first chapter focuses on the determinants and impacts of smallholder organization. Farmer groups are generally inclusive of the poor, although wealthier households are more likely to join. Access to credit plays a role, as the adoption of relatively costly TC planting material is technically encouraged among group members. Distance to paved roads and mobile phone ownership facilitate participation and thus have a positive effect on the likelihood of group membership. Employing a propensity score matching method to reduce possible selection bias in impact assessment, we show positive income effects for group members. However, the magnitude of the economic benefits correlates with the mode of participation, since we find positive income effects only for members selling through the group. A considerable number of members are not participating in collective marketing. Yet, price advantages of collective marketing are small, as highvalue market potentials have not yet been tapped. Increases in income therefore stem from specialization effects and the expansion of banana plantations, facilitated by the improved access to TC planting material. In addition, group members are more likely to follow good agricultural practices in banana cultivation. Hence, beyond prices, farmer groups function as important catalysts for innovation adoption through promoting efficient information flows. In conclusion, some of the motivations for collective action do not seem to apply in the case of banana in Kenya. With significant improvements in road infrastructure, supply chains have become relatively short over the past years. Nor do farmers suffer from monopsonic power of up- and downstream actors that could render collective bargaining beneficial. In terms of price benefits, farmer collective action may thus make more sense in high-value and export markets, which are more difficult to access for individual smallholders. The fact that the magnitude of benefits from group membership is linked to the degree of participation motivates the thematic focus in the second chapter. Within farmer groups, the commitment of individual members to achieve shared objectives can vary, because the expected net benefits are not the same for all, and opportunities to free-ride exist. Since the benefits of collective action emerge primarily through the exploitation of economies of scale, and services are financed through collective marketing, low participation rates in joint activities may jeopardize the performance and viability of farmer groups. The second chapter therefore investigates commitment to collective action in terms of participation intensity and free-riding. Sequential probit and doublehurdle regression models are used to explain participation in group meetings and collective marketing. The results suggest that family labor availability and previous benefits that members received through the groups positively influence their intensity of participation in group meetings and collective marketing. There is evidence that hints at a middle size effect. That is, those with very small and very large banana plantations are less likely to participate intensively in group activities, as their cost-benefit ratio is negative. Free-riding is mostly attributed to structural and institutional conditions, such as group size and the timing of payments. Furthermore, more diversified farmers are less likely to sell collectively. Since smallholders are often highly diversified in their agricultural activities, farmer groups should also diversify their activities to include more than one crop. These findings underline that it is important to go beyond considering participation in collective action as a binary variable. Commitment is not only influenced by opportunistic behavior but also by member constraints, which contribute to lower than optimal supply of collective goods and services. The knowledge of individual behavior and constraints allows policy makers to design and implement more successful and viable forms of collective action. Based on experiences from data collection in the field, men increasingly become involved in banana production, although banana traditionally belongs to the women’s sphere of control because of its importance as a semi-subsistence food crop. Although agricultural intensification and commercialization can have diverse effects on men and women, gender mainstreaming in farmer groups does not exist. The third chapter therefore investigates changes in gender relations due to group membership and related effects on household food security and nutrition. With membership in farmer groups, new economic opportunities emerge, which transform gender relations and may affect household welfare. Descriptive statistics are used to show that men increasingly become involved in banana production and revenue decisions when market and technology access improves. Controlling for possible selection bias, regression analysis suggests that dietary quality deteriorates when men seize control over revenues from banana production, although no effect on calorie supply can be observed. Finally, it is shown that female membership in farmer groups enables women to sustain their claims on banana output. Particularly the poorest women are thus able to increase their contribution to household income and strengthen their position within the household. Female membership enables women to better negotiate and sustain their claims on banana output within the family. These results emphasize the potential of farmer groups for the empowerment of women as farmers and as wives. The three chapters provide important insights into the distinct mechanisms of collective action by which benefits for smallholders emerge. In the case of staple foods, economic benefits emerge primarily through access to improved technology and information, since the motivation for market-oriented collective action may not hold as strongly as in high-value or export markets. Positive income effects in this concrete case can therefore mostly be attributed to specialization and intensification, which are important preconditions for smallholder commercialization. The binary definition of group membership used in most empirical studies may be misleading, as the costs and benefits of active participation may differ across individual members, so that different participation intensities are often observed. Knowledge of these differences allows policy makers to tackle some of the problems of farmer groups regarding market performance and viability in the longer term. Finally, farmer groups can be an important pro-poor tool for the empowerment of women. Yet, this potential has not yet been sufficiently explored by researchers and policy makers. Zusammenfassung Im Zugang zu Märkten stehen kleinbäuerliche Familien in Entwicklungsländern vor immensen Herausforderungen. Oft leben sie in Armut, müssen mit weniger als einem Hektar Land auskommen, haben kaum Anschluss an alljährlich befahrbare Straßen und leiden unter mangelndem Zugang zu Information über Märkte und verbesserte Anbaumethoden. Diese Faktoren erhöhen die Kosten des Marktaustausches und verhindern so ein profitables Wirtschaften. Wenn Kleinbauern konkurrenzfähig sein wollen, um von neuen Entwicklungen auf den Agrarmärkten zu profitieren, muss das Problem der geringen Skalenenerträge gelöst werden. Ein institutioneller Lösungsansatz hierfür ist kollektives Handeln, z.B. in Produzentengruppen, in denen Kleinbauern die nötigen Skalenvorteile erlangen, um Transaktionskosten zu reduzieren. Die Literatur hat die Mechanismen und Dynamiken aus denen die Vorteile kollektiven Handelns für Männer und Frauen hervorgehen, bisher nur unzureichend beschrieben. Daher wird hier in drei zusammenhängenden Beiträgen der Frage nachgegangen, ob und wie Produzentengruppen den Zugang zu Input- und Outputmärkten verbessern und zu einer Intensivierung und Kommerzialisierung der kleinbäuerlichen Landwirtschaft beitragen können. Um die verschiedenen Mechanismen zu beschreiben aus denen Vorteile entstehen, werden die Determinanten, Dynamiken und Auswirkungen von Produzentengruppen am Beispiel von Kleinbauern in Kenia analysiert. Für die Analyse wurden Querschnittsdaten von 444 Kleinbauern in der zentralen Hochlandregion Kenias erhoben, wo der Anbau von Bananen eine wichtige Nahrungs- und Einkommensquelle darstellt. Kürzlich gegründete Produzentengruppen, initiiert und unterstützt von zwei lokalen Nichtregierungsorganisationen (NROs), TechnoServe und Africa Harvest, stellen eine institutionelle Innovation in der nationalen Lieferkette für Bananen dar. Über die Gruppen können Kleinbauern verbesserte Gewebekulturpflanzen beziehen, erhalten Informationen über gute landwirtschaftliche Praxis und Märkte, sowie höhere Preise durch kollektives Verhandeln. Jedoch ist die tatsächliche Effektivität dieser Gruppen unklar. Zudem variiert das Engagement der einzelnen Mitglieder stark, und Genderaspekte werden nur unzureichend berücksichtigt. Diese Faktoren sind wichtig für den Erfolg und die wirtschaftliche Überlebensfähigkeit der Gruppen. Der erste Beitrag dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den Determinanten und Auswirkungen der kleinbäuerlichen Organisation. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Produzentengruppen prinzipiell für ärmere Bevölkerungsgruppen zugänglich sind, aber besser gestellte Bauern tendenziell eher beitreten. Desweiteren spielt der Zugang zu Krediten, Straßeninfrastruktur und Kommunikationstechnologie eine Rolle für die Mitgliedschaft, da sie die Adoption von kostenintensivem Pflanzmaterial erleichtern, was über die Gruppen technisch unterstützt wird. Mittels der Propensity Score Matching Methode wird eine Wirkungsanalyse durchgeführt und dabei ein möglicher Selektionsbias reduziert. Die Ergebnisse weisen auf positive Einkommenseffekte der Produzentengruppen hin. Der Grad des Nutzens korreliert jedoch stark mit der Art der Partizipation, da sich positive Effekte nur für solche Bauern abzeichnen, die Bananen auch tatsächlich über die Gruppe verkaufen. Eine signifikante Anzahl an Mitgliedern tut dies nicht. Die Preisvorteile der kollektiven Vermarktung sind allerdings eher gering, da Potentiale in höherwertigen Lieferketten bisher kaum erschlossen sind. Einkommenszuwächse sind daher mehrheitlich auf Spezialisierungseffekte und Ausweitung der Bananenproduktion zurückzuführen, die durch den verbesserten Zugang zu Pflanzmaterial ermöglicht wurden. Außerdem wenden Gruppenmitglieder häufiger verbesserte Anbaumethoden in der Bananenproduktion an, was darauf hindeutet dass Produzentengruppen ein wichtiger Katalysator für Innovationsadoption und effiziente Informationsflüsse sind. Es wird abschließend festgestellt, dass einige der Motivationen für kollektives Handeln im Falle von Bananen in Kenia nicht gegeben sind. Mit einer bemerkenswerten Verbesserung der kenianischen Straßeninfrastruktur in den letzten Jahren sind auch alternative Lieferketten kürzer und somit effizienter geworden. Zudem sind Kleinbauern in der Untersuchungsregion kaum monopsonistischer Marktmacht ausgesetzt, da die Händler selbst klein und zahlreich sind. In Bezug auf Preisvorteile ist kleinbäuerliches kollektives Handeln somit eher in höherwertigen Märkten und Exportsegmenten sinnvoll. Die Tatsache, dass die Vorteile kollektiven Handelns mit dem Grad der Partizipation zusammenhängen, motiviert die Fragestellung im zweiten Beitrag. Der Einsatz Einzelner innerhalb der Gruppe ein gemeinsames Ziel zu erreichen kann stark variieren, da Nutzen und Kosten der aktiven Teilnahme unterschiedlich sind und Möglichkeiten zum Trittbrettfahren existieren. Da jedoch die Vorteile kollektiven Handelns hauptsächlich durch die Erzeugung von Skalenvorteilen entstehen und Dienstleistungen oft über die kollektive Vermarktung finanziert werden, kann geringe Beteiligung der Mitglieder in Gruppenaktivitäten den Erfolg und Überlebensfähigkeit der Gruppe langfristig gefährden. Der zweite Beitrag untersucht daher den individuellen Beitrag in der Gruppe im Sinne von Partizipationsintensität und Trittbrettfahrerverhalten. Sequentielle probit Modelle und Double-Hurdle Regression werden angewendet, um die Partizipation in Gruppensitzungen und kollektiver Vermarktung zu erklären. Die Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass sich die Verfügbarkeit von familiären Arbeitskräften und frühere positive Erfahrungen mit der Gruppe positiv auf die Partizipationsintensität auswirken. Desweiterin gibt es einen Mittelgrösse-Effekt, bei dem sehr kleine Bauern und sehr große Bauern weniger geneigt sind intensiv an Gruppenaktivitäten teilzunehmen. Trittbrettfahrerverhalten kann hauptsächlich strukturellen und institutionellen Bedingungen zugeschrieben werden, wie zum Beispiel der Gruppengröße und dem Zeitpunkt der Bezahlung. Stark diversifizierte Bauern tragen ebenfalls weniger zum Gruppenmarketing bei. Die Ergebnisse zeigen insgesamt auf, wie wichtig es ist, das in der Literatur gängige Verständnis von Gruppenpartizipation in Form einer einfachen binären Variable zu erweitern. Engagement in Situationen kollektiven Handelns wird nicht nur durch opportunistisches Verhalten, sondern auch von individuellen Gegebenheiten bestimmt. Beides kann dazu führen, dass das kollektive Gut nicht in der optimalen Menge produziert werden kann. Kenntnisse darüber erlauben die Entwicklung und Einführung langfristig überlebensfähigerer Formen von kollektivem Handeln. Erfahrungen bei der Datenerhebung vor Ort haben gezeigt, dass sich zunehmend Männer in die Bananenproduktion einbringen, obwohl Bananen aufgrund ihrer Bedeutung als Subsistenzeinkommensquelle traditionell eher in den Bereich der Frauen fallen. Obwohl Intensivierung und Kommerzialisierung der Landwirtschaft unterschiedliche Auswirkungen auf Männer und Frauen haben können und durch marktorientiertes kollektives Handeln gefördert werden, wurden Genderaspekte in Bauerngruppen bisher kaum berücksichtigt. Der dritte Artikel untersucht daher Veränderungen im Geschlechterverhältnis, die durch die Mitgliedschaft in marktorientierten Gruppen entstehen können und die daraus resultierenden Auswirkungen auf Nahrungsmittelsicherheit und Ernährung. Deskriptive Analysen deuten darauf hin, dass sich Männer tatsächlich zunehmend an Entscheidungen über Bananenproduktion und -einnahmen beteiligen. Ergebnisse von Regressionsanalysen zeigen, dass sich die Qualität der Ernährung verschlechtern kann, wenn Männer über die Einnahmen verfügen; es gibt jedoch keinen Effekt auf die Kalorienverfügbarkeit insgesamt. Schließlich wird gezeigt, dass Frauen eher ihr Recht auf Einnahmen verteidigen können, wenn die Mitgliedschaft in der Gruppe auf ihren Namen läuft. Insbesondere sehr armen Frauen wird so ermöglicht, ihren Anteil am Haushaltseinkommen zu erhöhen, was wiederum ihre Position innerhalb der Familie stärkt. Die Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass Produzentengruppen sich positiv auf die Situation der Frauen in landwirtschaftlichen Regionen auswirken können. Die drei Artikel geben einen wichtigen Einblick in die Mechanismen kollektiven Handelns, durch die spezifische Vorteile für Kleinbauern entstehen. Im Falle von Grundnahrungsmitteln entstehen ökonomische Vorteile insbesondere dadurch, dass der Zugang zu neuen Technologien und Information verbessert wird. Die Notwendigkeit für kollektive Vermarktung, wie zum Beispiel in höherwertigen Märkten und Exportsegmenten, muss jedoch nicht unbedingt gegeben sein. Einkommenseffekte im konkreten Beispiel sind eher auf Spezialisierung und Intensivierung der Produktion zurückzuführen, die jedoch letztlich wichtige Voraussetzungen für die Kommerzialisierung von Kleinbauern sind. Die gängige binäre Definition von Mitgliedschaft in Bauerngruppen kann irreführend sein, da die tatsächlichen Kosten und Vorteile von Individuum zu Individuum unterschiedlich sind und somit unterschiedliche Partizipationsintensitäten üblich sind. Kenntnisse über diese Unterschiede erlauben die Probleme kollektiven Handelns, vor allem im Hinblick auf die Trittbrettfahrerproblematik, zu reduzieren. Schließlich können Produzentengruppen dazu beitragen, die Position armer Frauen in ländlichen Regionen zu stärken. Dieses Potenzial ist jedoch bisher kaum erschlossen.




Global Supply Chains, Standards and the Poor


Book Description

This book looks at the restructuring of the agri-food industry and the rise of global retail chains in developing and transition countries, focusing on the implications of these changes for the poor. Part I (chapters 2-7) (i) identifies global changes in food standards and supply chains, (ii) explains their emergence and relevance for today's trade and development debate, and (iii) presents a series of conceptual frameworks necessary to understand the changes and their effects. Part II (chapters 8-18) contains a set of empirical studies, organized by region, which present new quantitative information on the effects of globalization and vertical contracting in modern supply chains in developing, emerging and transition countries. Part III (chapters 19-22) discusses the implications of these developments for the international policy agenda. The book has a subject index.




Market information and access to structured markets by small farmers and traders: Evidence from an action research experiment in central Malawi


Book Description

Small farmers and traders often lack the market information they need to earn the most from their crop sales. This paper analyzes the effects of an action research experiment in central Malawi, in which four groups of smallholder farmers were provided with maize and soybean price information from a local commodity exchange during the 2019 marketing season, while four other groups of smallholder farmers did not receive this information. Using data from a panel survey of 399 farmers and 78 traders conducted before and after the main marketing season and using kernel propensity score matching approach to account for possible differences between the treated and non-treated farmers, we estimate the effects of the intervention on a number of outcome indicators. A before versus after analysis was also employed to evaluate changes in traders’ marketing outcomes. We find positive but statistically insignificant effects on maize and soybean selling prices, sales through structured markets and levels of commercialization after the intervention. We also find a negative and statistically significant effect on the quantity of maize sold by farmers, suggesting paradoxically that providing farmers with price information reduced their sales volumes. The proportion of traders aware of structured markets and their share of sales through structured markets also increased significantly after the intervention. The quantity of maize sold by traders as well as the selling prices for maize and soy-bean also increased significantly, although this may be due to factors other than the intervention. The study concludes that provision of price information alone is not enough to facilitate small farmers’ and traders’ use of structured markets. Greater effort is needed to sensitize farmers and traders on the quality and quantity requirements as well as the operations of structured markets.




Producer Companies in India


Book Description

Organising small producers for dealing with production and market risks has been an issue of much debate and research. The co-operative model has been the predominant form of organization of such producers in the past across the developing world and more so in India whether for input supply or output handling and marketing. In 2002, the Companies Act was amended to make space for producer or farmer companies under the Act. As a result, over the last decade, hundreds of producer companies have been promoted by different stakeholders like government, NGOs, farmers’ unions and some corporate agencies to link farmers with markets and create better bargaining power to deal with modern and changing markets. In this context, this study examines the nature and process of promotion of producer companies in India and their performance and dynamics across four states, commodity sectors, and promoters within agricultural sector with the help of case studies of two dozen such companies. It compares and contrasts the Indian producer company structure with traditional co-operatives and with similar innovations in other contexts like Sri Lanka’s farmer companies. The study analyses the performance and the problems of the producer companies from various perspectives, and examines policy and organizational issues to provide guidelines for better structuring and management of this innovative form of producer collectivization in India and the developing world.